Food insecurity is a concerning and pressing issue that communities around the world currently face. In the wake of environmental justice and sustainability movements, the San Francisco Bay Area is addressing the concept of Food Justice— the right of communities everywhere to produce, distribute, access, and eat good food regardless of race, class or gender— by mobilizing a diverse community of food-loving individuals. By establishing urban farms and connecting organic, wholesome food to marginalized groups in the Bay Area, leaders of this community are extending their passion for sustainability and horticulture to a new and healthy generation.
The idea of an urban farm is not new. In fact, urban permaculture has been around since the Great Depression as a way to support and feed families against rising costs of comestibles. Los Angeles "Gangsta Gardener" Ron Finley created his own urban garden as a response to the 2008 recession. His impact on the community led to the city's new ordinance that permitted the development of street gardens. These oases of fresh and organic produce not only provide nutrient-rich foods for low-income families, but also allow community members to participate in gardening, cooking and serving, while strengthening the camaraderie among youth and elders. At the same time, communities that choose to consume locally grown food reduces the demand for food grown from environmentally and socially unethical industries. The film Edible City highlights some of the significant efforts that Bay Area natives have made to expand food justice. Antonio Roman Alcala started a food-growing project in 2004. After asking himself, “How can I personally respond to the increased dependence on fossil fuels that the nation’s food production relies on?” Alcala created a community garden in an abandoned area nearby low-income housing projects. Before, people in the community were afraid to leave their doorstep and felt trapped within the confines of their property. The Alemany Farm helped reduce these feelings by welcoming community members to participate in gardening and reap the fruitful rewards. Eventually, the urban farm received public funding from the city’s department of recreation to finance a youth program that provided environmental education and a stipend for working at the garden. Alemany Farm welcomes volunteers from all over the Bay Area, who network with like-minded individuals and leave with a basket of fresh produce. Extraordinary individuals replicate this effort all over the Bay Area. Co-founders Jessica Prentice, Porsche Combash, Misa Koketsu and Catherine Spanger founded the public kitchen cooperative, Three Stone Hearth that welcomes volunteers and consumers to prepare locally grown food. Their mission is to prepare meals that are rich in minerals and nutrient-dense, utilizing organic cooking methods borrowed from traditional cultures. In Oakland, Willow Summer created City Slicker Farmers, a collection of spaces transformed into community gardens. The food produced at these gardens is sold to individuals with the least access to affordable, nutritious food. The goal of this urban farm is to teach West Oakland residents the importance of ecology, sustainability, and self-reliance. Oakland is a melting pot of cultures, religions, and classes. Today, many districts are home to local businesses and restaurants that feed the socially-conscience, environmentally sustainable middle-class consumer. Without notice, these gentrified neighborhoods have displaced low-income families to places without access to healthy, affordable food. Low-income families agglomerate in neighborhoods that do not have adequate super markets, forcing them to travel 20-30 minutes or shop at overpriced corner stores. As a result, food insecurity has become embedded in the lives of marginalized groups. Jason Harvey recognizes the importance of providing food justice to displaced communities. As an Oakland native himself, Harvey seeks to improve the conditions of people he considers his own extended family. To address these issues, Harvey developed the non-profit organization Oakland Food Connection to promote access to healthy food in their community. Town hall-fashioned meetings welcome people who wish to voice their opinions on sustainability and are interested in serving the community. These sustainable practices demonstrate the concept of Food Sovereignty—extending food security to all components of food production. Land, seeds, water, education and human capital should be distributed equally among society. This film highlights the significance that “small islands of sustainability” have on mobilizing environmental movements. Becoming a good farmer and making sustainable decisions is only the first step in building sustainable communities. Social movements can bring radical change to the political system that allows movements to become institutionalized beyond the Bay Area. These projects are scaling. With diversity, transparency and pure enjoyment, our society is taking back its power to produce food.
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Marjan Kris is a third-year undergraduate student at UCLA studying History, Urban/Regional Development and Labor Studies.
What does it mean to live sustainability? M: To live sustainably for me means to actively take steps in my everyday life in such a way that lessens or prevents any significant impact on the environment as well as my surrounding. Living sustainably means not only thinking of the environment, but also the people I encounter and the relationships I foster with them. So not only am I, for example, purchasing clothing from thrift stores, but also researching which thrift stores contribute to the local economy or give back to the immediate community. What role does Environmental Justice play in building sustainable communities? M: Environmental Justice should and must be centered in discussions about building sustainable communities. Environmental Justice is an avenue that ensures inclusive communities, recognizes the relationship we have with the environment we live in, and encourages a stewardship to take care, even regenerate, the earth we live on. By also looking into the histories of Environmental Justice movements, putting Environmental Justice at the forefront of discussion, public health is also tackled. What motivated you to start living sustainably? M: For me, learning and absorbing all of the information about sustainable living in college was not enough. It took a while, and I think I'm still in the process, but I started applying all of this knowledge into my everyday life. Looking into the economic, personal health, ethical, etc. reasons to lead a more sustainable life convinced me to continue challenging myself to adapt to this lifestyle. How do you practice a sustainable lifestyle? M: Well I'm currently a vegetarian (when I'm sober, oops) and I've been making more meals that are vegan. I also don't purchase new clothes, typically shopping at thrift stores or rummaging through my parents' closets. I try to rely less on my car and use public transportation around the city. I also try not to produce as much waste, either -- usually bringing my own utensils to places or being cognizant of the waste I'm producing. I think there are different ways to be more sustainable, especially within the privileges we may not have in comparison to others." How would you encourage other people in your community to live more sustainably? M: I think the best way to best reach out to communities to meet them where they are and see what small things can be changed little by little. Change takes a long time, and cultural shifts are challenging. However, I think it is possible when you are engaged and invested in the endeavor as well." Are you working on any projects relevant to sustainability? M: Currently, I do a lot of programming with my university campus and proximate community on issues relating to regenerative/sustainable lifestyles and how we can lead more sustainable lives. This includes planning to show movies (titled, Green Screens), passing out tote bags for groceries or anything really, and participating in organizations that promote eco-conscious lifestyles and divestment from environmentally-degrading companies (Fossil Free UC). In an effort to keep up with rising energy demands, countries around the world are looking into cost-saving, renewable energy sources. The French documentary “Demain”, which translates to “Tomorrow”, discusses Iceland’s use of geothermal energy to accomplish its goals toward net zero is an ongoing sustainable success story. In the mountains, pipelines connects a 300 megawatt power plant to the capital city of Reykjavik, transferring electricity and hot water made from geothermal energy.
According to an article on the Scientific American, journalist Christopher Mims describes Iceland’s traits that allow its government to exploit its geothermal power. Underground reservoirs of water that are constantly renewed by precipitation that range as high as 177 inches over the country’s glaciers are heated by magma to temperatures that exceed 750 degrees Fahrenheit. The development of geothermal power started in the 1970’s as a response to an oil shock. Homes at the time were entirely dependent on oil for heat, and needed to find alternatives to overexploiting their traditional energy resources. Today, 90 percent of homes in Iceland are connected to a renewable heating system and 99 percent of electricity is produced from renewable sources, 30 percent being geothermal power. Through a mix of geothermal and hydroelectric power, Iceland prides itself on being 100 percent self-sufficient. In addition to serving as a critical power supply, the geothermal power is responsible for the development of Iceland’s leading tourist attraction, the Blue Lagoon. The lagoon’s geothermal water comes from freshwater and seawater combining at extreme temperatures, which is harnessed by a nearby power plant that also provides electricity and hot water to the local community. I had the privilege of visiting Reykjavik, Iceland in December and spent a morning relaxing at the Blue Lagoon. Besides the warm, blue water and tranquil ambiance, I was experiencing Iceland's geothermal empire first-hand. Knowing this allowed me to submerge myself into this oasis of human and natural ingenuity with a green peace of mind. Other developed countries like the United States, Switzerland and France have the potential to utilize geothermal energy. This potential is not limited to the Global North, but can be seen in countries like Kenya and Ethiopia. Iceland’s use of renewable energy sources is an example of how countries around the world are institutionalizing sustainability to reduce the effects of global warming and overconsumption of depleting resources. You can watch the full documentary "Demain" here. For more information on the Blue Lagoon, you can visit their website here. In the college town of Isla Vista, a group of grassroots environmentalists meet together at the Stephen BIKO “People of Color” themed housing Co-op. Here, individuals showcase their art, share knowledge about their respective fields, and discuss ideas to turn Isla Vista into a sustainable and environmentally just community over pita bread and hummus.
The event, “IV Futurism: Party With A Purpose”, was organized by students as a final project for Environmental Studies 116: Building Sustainable Communities, but this agglomeration of environmentalists and philanthropists proved to be more than just a class project; Rather, the sophistication, aesthetically beautiful decor and fun activities to participate in demonstrated the potential Isla Vista had in becoming an aspiring community of social and environmental responsibility. I watched people plant seeds into egg cartons and overheard a conversation about zero waste in aquaponics. During the event, community members and visiting friends held a discussion about sustainable practices that the group wanted to incorporate locally. Centered around “Disruptive Design”, Leslie sparked a conversation on Time Banking- an alternative method of economic change where time is money. In this economy, an individual collects hours by serving other people in their community using their knowledge, skills, and tools. Rather than investing in financial markets, we are investing in our community. Setting up a local economic trading system in Isla Vista would have many potential benefits. It would strengthen camaraderie in the community, encourage youth participation and showcase resilience against economic bureaucracy. A member of the group commented, “In order for this system to function, it must be built on a foundation of trust.” Time Banking demonstrates the beauty of stopping the treadmill of production and emanating the power of self-reliance. Afterward, I networked with others in my community over Mcconnell’s Fine Ice Cream and under a beautifully setting sun. Before the event ended, there was a raffle for a refurbished bike to encourage the reuse of unwanted or broken material. Unfortunately, I didn’t win. But I also didn’t leave this event empty-handed; I walked out into the street knowing that my community is made up of inspiring and empathetic individuals, eager to innovate and implement solutions that will transform our college town into an emblem of sustainability-- a prize that I know will last for generations. A large part of sustainable development involves redesigning our physical communities to work in harmony with the natural environment for the health and enjoyment of all people. Phil Sheppard provides us information on sustainable building in his documentary “Environmentally Sustainable Construction,” which highlights design strategies homeowners and developers can use to make their homes and surrounding communities more sustainable. Sheppard mentions 4 important concepts—passive design, material use, energy reduction, and water usage—that must be addressed when building sustainable homes. Building heating and cooling is an energy intensive process that can be fixed through passive design principles. Good shading, proper orientation of heating and cooling appliances, and insulation can help reduce the amount of energy needed to warm and cool houses. Architects design the orientation of actual homes so that natural sunlight can reflect on glass windows. In addition, homeowners can reduce costs and consumption of energy by switching to energy efficient appliances with energy ratings. Homeowners can also swap out fixtures like shower heads, faucets and toilets by with water efficient labeled fixtures and dual-flush toilets.
Sheppard extends the principles of environmental sustainability to community development. In order to make communities environmentally sustainable, urban planners need to focus on street scape, sustainable landscapes and sustainable transport. Streets should be designed to convey openness to increase pedestrian activity, reduce private transportation and strengthen a sense of community. Planners must consider water and air quality, local climate and biodiversity, and overall aesthetic when designing outdoor landscapes. Developing in harmony with the habitat of native animals is important for environmentally sustainable design. Lastly, focusing on sustainable transport is important to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and harvest a community of pedestrians. Since the private car emits around 14 tons of greenhouse gases each year, investing in public transportation systems like the ones implemented in Brazil and London can decrease pollution and support low-income community members who rely on public transportation. Apartments should be located next to recreation centers, shops and food establishments to reduce the need for transportation and to foster a sense of community. Building Sustainable Communities. Sustainability is defined as “development that meets the needs of people in the present without compromising the needs of future generations.” Green building and construction prioritize sustainability by utilizing biomimicry, clean technology and appliances, and natural systems to avoid detraction of future energy, water and resources. In addition, this film highlights the importance of Just Sustainability by designing open communities with public transportation systems that will benefit the community in an equitable way under the limits of our natural ecosystem. Overall, Sheppard believes, “The way we live and create out environment are interconnected.” Having enough people make small changes in their private homes and public communities can bring about enormous change. Loren and Matt Feinstein introduce concepts like the Treadmill of Production, Disproportionality, Environmental Justice, and Resistance in their film “Agrofuels”. This film documents the detrimental impacts of food-based fuels on the environment, jobs of local farmers, and health of indigenous communities that live adjacent to monoculture plantations that produce these fuels. Agrofuels are made from the oil of mono-crops like corn, soy and palm, and used as gasoline for automobile and other production industries. Although this seems like a good alternative to fossil-fuel intensive industries, Agrofuels should not be confused with locally and sustainably produced biofuels; Agrofuels causes deforestation, increases climate change and exploits marginalized communities of the Global South.
Few companies like Monsanto control the world’s seed production. These powerful elites genetically modify seeds that harm natural biodiversity, kill native crops and foods produced by local farmers. Mexico now relies on genetically modified corn seeds because its native corn species was defeated by competition. The production of Agrofuels also eliminates carbon sinks and biodiversity, increase in global warming, and pollutes water resources. Deforestation from land use change contributes to one fifth of the world’s carbon emissions. Aside from the huge impacts on the environment, Agrofuels have large impacts on local communities who bear the burden of the global North’s economic prosperity. Industries use what they call “unused, poor” lands they believe are perfect for agriculture. However, these lands are homes for indigenous people, who are forced to move closer into uncivilized, dangerous areas. Additionally, the use of pesticides to manage mono-crops is responsible for three million cases of herbicide poisoning and 25,000 deaths annually. Environmental theories like the Treadmill of Production and Risk Society explain Agrofuels reliance on consumer demand, offshoring production and chemical impact on indigenous people. Greater economic prosperity is proportional to the risk on the Global South. Since the business of Agrofuels is reliant on consumers that continue the treadmill of production the ideal solution is to stop consumption. Only 4 percent of the world’s population consumes about 25 percent of the world’s energy production. In order to reduce the scale of agribusinesses, driving down consumer demand through education is quintessential. Local, grassroots efforts by indigenous communities prove that resistance is possible. Women of Pernambuco, Brazil protested against Agrofuels and advocated food sovereignty. An indigenous community dismantled a pump that polluted a local lagoon. Exploited community’s work together to preserve and distribute natural, local seeds as a form of resistance against agribusinesses. These efforts demonstrate that locally based, community organization is the solution to combatting global environmental problems. Local Exchange Trading Systems (LETS) is an alternative form of economic exchange used to promote social welfare and has positive benefits on the environment. LETS works like a barter system. It implements an “IOU” style of trading; members earn credits by providing a good, skill or service, and receive one of equal value from another member. LETS does not require an official currency for trading; Instead, these transactions are recorded, logged, and published by a treasurer of the system so that members can keep track of balances and exchanges. Since LETS is open to people of all ages, socioeconomic backgrounds, and skills within a community, its goal is to counter exclusion of the unemployed who cannot afford to participate in the market. For example, participants in a LETS system can exchange goods and services such as childcare, transportation, food, home repairs, tools and equipment, or tutoring sessions. By exchanging goods and services on a need-to-need basis, participants are able to save money for other necessities.
LETS started as a response to an economic recession in Vancouver during the 1980’s. High unemployment caused a surge in demand for goods and services and a drop in money in the financial system. In 1983, Michael Linton developed a local exchange trade system to augment the money in the local economic system with an IOU system of trading. The 1990’s witnessed an acceleration in the number of local exchange trading systems established in countries like Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Moral money? LETS and the social construction of local economic geographies in Southeast England by R. Lee Alternative economics such as LETS not only help low-income families in communities and support local benefits, but also has positive effects on the environment. Since LETS is open to people of all ages, socioeconomic backgrounds, and skills within a community, its goal is to counter the exclusion unemployed individuals who cannot afford to participate in the market. Pacione references these initiatives in his paper “Local Exchange Trading Systems as a Response to the Globalisation”, stating that LETS “offers both the unemployed and everybody else the opportunity of transforming their labour power or working time (even small unevenly distributed amounts of the latter) into purchasing power without the necessity of either working for an employing firm or of possessing capital.” Local economies allow people to give and take, connect to new resources, form community identity. Local exchange trading systems also have a positive effect on the environment. Since LETS is a closed system where individuals, families and businesses can use local goods and services, instead of financing unethical and environmentally irresponsible firms that extract resources and outsource cheap labor from other countries. In addition, the locality of a LETS system discourages people from travelling far distances for goods and services, and decreases greenhouse gas emissions by eliminating long-distance transportation of goods and services. This is particularly true of food production, where efforts can be made to increase the exchange of locally grown food. It also promotes sustainable and walkable town-centers and communities, reducing urban sprawl, automobile use, habitat loss and pollution. Local Exchange Trading Systems are an emblem to sustainable communities. It’s goals and successes address problems regarding equity, environmental justice, and sustainability. LETS systems also have unrealized problems. Scalability, management, and resources for outreach and publicity are some logistical aspects that make local, alternative economies grow outside of neighborhoods. LETS could also pose problems on minority communities that don’t have easy access to resources like the database or desirable skills. Although LETS prides itself on being inclusive to individuals of all incomes, ethnicities, genders and physical capabilities, marginalized groups without access to education or marketable skills can be excluded from trading. In addition, LETS relies on trust for successful trading. If there isn’t a foundation of trust between different groups in the community, can LETS be applied to different regions around the world? After taking these problems into considering, could an alternative economy like LETS be implemented in communities around the world at a large scale? Or is LETS limited to existing as a middle-class hobby that complements the current financial and economic system? Urban planners can incorporate sustainability into their agendas using Biomimicry, a design methodology that’s gaining popularity in today’s society. Biomimicry, meaning “to imitate life”, mimics the designs and processes of the natural world to solve human problems. Biomimicry can be applied to production, consumption, disposal; whether in areas like energy, recycling, engineering or transportation, living organisms have managed to perform these functions without depleting natural resources or polluting the planet. Biomimicry can also be used to help design buildings by incorporates systems and elements that can be found in nature into the design of a building. For example, students at the New York School of Interior Design drafted a building design project that used the surrounding environment as inspiration for the home's layout. The deep canyons and hills nearby influenced the home's segmented and scatted space that incorporated indoor and outdoor garden areas. Thus, biomimicry relies on ecology to solve environmental problems. This means that the design of a process or function would imitate natural processes that belong in the same habitat or climate. Biomimicry is used to transform cities into urban ecosystems. The Bank of America building in New York is designed with air-filtering technology that allows air to leave the building three times cleaner than when it entered. If this design is replicated in multiple buildings throughout the city, the urban environment will mimic a natural forest- an ecosystem that can self-sufficiently build fertile soil, clean water, filter our pollution and keep the temperature cool. Another example of biomimicry can be seen in Mumbai, India. Janine Benyus, author of “Biomimicry”, worked with an architecture firm to implement a design that mimics an environment prone to monsoons. Building foundations grip hillsides like roots of trees, and roads mimic local anthills that remain intact during monsoon storms. One critique of biomimicry is the belief in nature being an imperfect system with inevitable flaws, which can pose risks on human ingenuity. This belief stems from the idea that nature and human culture are two separate entities rather than interdependent systems. Another critique is that methodologies like biomimicry do not directly solve problems with over consumption. Since biomimicry increases efficiency, critics believe that this could increase consumption due to an increase in demand. Personally, I think biomimicry is a useful tool not only to create sustainable environments but also to demonstrate the interconnection between modern society and natural wildlife when implemented in public spaces. This coalition can remind people to treat human innovations with the same respect and care one would give to nature. In addition, biomimicry is a good replacement for environmentally destructive and energy intensive designs and techniques. However, the methodology of biomimicry still relies on the development of new technology and is motivated by continuous economic development. Could this in some way be a masked version of ecological modernization, which states that economic development could benefit by becoming more sustainable and environmentally conscious? What do you think? Should planners, engineers, and scientists implement methodologies like biomimicry when designing the future, or does this encourage more unnecessary economic developments? Helping families live happier lives is what GRID Alternatives’ work is all about GRID Alternatives is a non-profit organization that provides low-income families in need solar power to reduce energy costs. The organization connects volunteers of diverse backgrounds to come together and work on solar installations. By bringing clean, renewable energy to communities and neighborhoods that suffer from air pollution and environmental injustices, GRID Alternatives is an emblem of what it means to be sustainable. "Helping families live happier lives is what GRID Alternatives’ work is all about, whether we are reducing their utility cost burden or literally lighting up their homes and communities for the first time. In 2015 we installed solar power for more than 1200 families, saving them nearly $40 million in lifetime electricity costs. We’ve also installed off-grid, battery-based solar for 41 homes and seven community facilities in Nicaragua and on tribal lands in the United States." -GRID Alternatives In the summer of 2015, I participated in a two day solar panel installation project to provide low-income families access to clean, low-cost energy. It was a warm afternoon in July when I drove just 10 minutes from my home in Oakland, California to a neighboring community in my district. I remember walking into the home, meeting fellow volunteers, and learning some of the basics of installing solar panels. I got the chance to work directly on the roof to screw in the panels to the home owner's roof. I was nervous at first, but the security of the harness and the support of my team leaders was enough to rid me of my anxieties. My favorite part of the solar installation was enjoying a home cooked meal prepared by the homeowner, conversing with the diverse group of volunteers and learning about their passions in renewable energy and sustainability. Once the solar panel installation was complete, I was overcome with a feeling of immense joy; Helping families in need while reducing the effects of global warming was worth every drop of sweat and sore muscle under that warm, July sun. My volunteer team saved the homeowners an estimated $21,079 over the system's lifetime. Working with GRID Alternatives gave me the opportunity to witness and experience the power of community resilience and just sustainability. Julie Agyeman sums up my thoughts during the project in her article, "Exploring the nexus: bringing together sustainability, environmental justice, and equality," where she says: “Sustainability cannot be simply a ‘green’, or ‘environmental’ concern, important though ‘environmental’ aspects of sustainability are. A truly sustainable society is one where wider questions of social needs and welfare, and economic opportunity are integrally related to environmental limits imposed by supporting ecosystems” -Julie Agyeman, 2002 The solar installation addresses the necessity of extending sustainable practices to all groups of people, while working to ensure that the needs of future generations will not be compromised. For people interested in working with GRID ALTERNATIVES, or learning about their mission, you can check their website at http://www.gridalternatives.org to find a regional office near you. Theories of Environment-Society explain the relationship between our natural world and human development. These explanations act as a guide for thinking about the events that occur in our society, and provide people the knowledge to take action. In order to create solutions to environmental problems, we must understand these fundamental theories.
New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) Focuses on the intrinsic value of all organisms in contrast to the Social Paradigm that places humans above all other living species. This environmental theory is particularly concerned about environmental issues like species extinction, habitat loss, and pollution. NEP is a shared ideology among early environmental scholars like Aldo Leopold, John Muir, Gifford Pinchot and Rachel Carson. Deep Ecology A response to "Shallow Ecology" which prioritizes human health and affluence in industrialized nations. Deep ecology seeks to breakdown anthropocentrism, decenter human beings and advocate that all living organisms including humans share equal value. Risk Society Highlights the concerns of safety threatened by the abundance of chemical poisoning, radioactivity, genetic engineering, and resource extraction, especially on marginalized groups of people. Correlates Health problems like skin and lung cancers to environmental degradation. As technology grows to support the population and increase economic development of the Global North, developing countries and communities become "loser regions" that are most exposed to toxic chemicals and waste. The responsibility is shifted to the developed countries exploiting other parts of the world for economic prosperity. The Risk Society's "New Hazards" A response to Risk Society; "New Hazards" states that chemical toxins in the environment can only be minimized but not eliminated. The damage that has been done before is irreversible, and everyone is equally at risk. The responsibility of mitigating these problems is difficult because these hazards come from diverse sources. Disproportionality Rather than focusing on large scale environmental movements and revolutions, Disproportionality emphasizes the importance of changing actions at a smaller scale. This theory states that people need to change the performance of individual malevolent firms in order to change the environment. Treadmill of Production Holds production and consumption responsible for environmental damages. Capitalism runs on economic growth that needs resources to keep the "treadmill" running. Ecological systems cannot meet both market demand and social demand. However, the Treadmill of Production puts the needs of the market before public health, recreation and the environment. The effects of this process include environmental degradation, global warming, rising class inequalities, environmental injustice, and increased risks to health and safety. Treadmill of Destruction Warfare and militarization contribute to ecological destruction, health and safety risks, and social and environmental injustice. The Treadmill of Destruction is linked to the Treadmill of Production, but emphasizes the effects of military, national security and warfare have on environmental harm and class struggles. Militarization involves extraction of resources, use of fossil fuels, produces nuclear waste, and displaces communities around the world. World Systems Theory Highlights the division between the Global North and Global South. The wealth of developed nations is directly linked to ecological degradation and underdevelopment of less wealthy nations. This is an effect of the Global North extracting the Global South's natural resources, offshoring labor and outsourcing cheap goods and materials for their own economic prosperity. Unequal Exchange Theory A product of the Treadmill of Production and World Systems Theory. Unequal Exchange Theory emphasizes the role the Global North plays in exploiting the Global South. Developed countries have a track record for shifting their environmental externalities onto marginalized countries and communities by extracting resources, offering low wages for their work, and transferring their waste in their lands. As a result, developed countries appear to be more environmentally conscious and sustainable while the Global South must focus on economic development at the expense of continuos environmental degradation. Ecological Modernization Issues of environmental degradation and global warming can be addressed by incorporating sustainability in economic development. Ecological Modernization proclaims that modernity and technology is part of the solution, not the inherent problem. This theory states that capitalism and technological innovation will lead to the growth of green industries, careers and technology. These innovations increase as the economy continues to grow. Unlike the Treadmill of production and Risk Society theories, Ecological Modernization believes that as countries develop, their concern over the environment and incorporation of sustainable practices increases. EcoFeminism The oppression and degradation of non-human nature is based on the same oppression on gender, race, class and sexuality that humans experience. This oppression stems from an established hierarchy and institutionalized power imbalance. Power-hungry humans that seek to conquer, control, and reign superiority over a group of living organisms are responsible for the oppression and exploitation of the environment. Ecofeminism advocates social justice and equality as a solution for stopping environmental degradation. Political Ecology Political Ecology states that there is no difference between nature and humans. The relationship between nature and humans is intertwined by continuously imposing human ingenuity onto natural landscapes, living organisms and resources of the environment. The natural world also imposes biological and ecological processes on civilization that provides the foundation for human developments. As a result, everything on earth is a hybrid of humans and the environment. Resilience The ability to adapt to disturbances and adversity. Communities demonstrate resilience when they are able to rise above social and environmental externalities imposed on them. In order to build a sustainable community, the capacity of resilience must be incorporated in the planning process. |
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